Moringa oleifera

Origin

South Asia

Ecology

Annual rainfall: 750-2500mm.

Normal temp range: 9-37°C.

Altitude range: 0-1000m.

Seasonal adaptability: Good.

Soils: pH 5.5-7.5; can grow on soils with low fertility; best on alluvial soils.

Description

Height at maturity: 12m.

Form: Small tree, umbrella shaped, light crown.

Coppicing ability: Good

Other: Does not fix nitrogen

Primary advantages

Has a number of food, fodder, and fuel uses; grows well on poor, dry soils.

Products and yields

Fuelwood: Has wood density of 0.32 (air dry) 4600 kcal/kg. Burns very fast.

Fodder: Leaves are used.

Food: Young pods are eaten; dried seeds eaten like peanuts; root from seed-grown trees used as horseradish substitute.

Other: Oil from seeds is known in trade as Ben or Behen oil and used locally as an edible oil, for illumination, lubrication and cosmetics; bark and leaves are reported to be medicinal.

Propagation

Seedlings, cuttings, direct sowing.

Seed treatment

None required.

Management

Can be coppiced, lopped, pollarded, or pruned for fuelwood.

Agroforestry uses

Light crown density allows it to be interplanted with many kinds of annual crops.

Alnus nepalensis Indian alder

Origin

South Asia

Ecology

Annual rainfall: 800-3700mm.

Normal temperature range: 0-26°C.

Altitude range: 100-3000m.

Seasonal adaptability: tolerates 4-8 months dry season.

Soils: prefers loamy, deep soils but can grow on sandy clays and gravel soils that are not too dry or compacted. Soils acidic or neutral. Withstanding waterlogging for short periods.

Light requirement: low.

Other site limitations: wind sensitive.

Description

Height at maturity: 30m.

Diameter at breast height (1.3m) at maturity: 80cm.

Form: fair to good, but persistent branching.

Coppicing ability: fair to good; best if cut in rainy season.

Growth: rain dependant; on a good site, a 9-year-old stand can reach 24.3 m in height; less on drier sites.

Other: fixes nitrogen.

Primary advantages

Can grow at high elevations; fixes nitrogen; can stabilise slipping slopes; good for green manure.

Primary disadvantages

Susceptible to defoliators and stem borers. Seedlings susceptible to frost.

Products and yields

Wood products: poles and fuelwood in 5 years, small saw timber in 10 years. Boxes, matches, splints and pulp.

Fuelwood: 4600 kcal/kg; dries rapidly and burns very fast.

Fodder: leaves provide a low-quality fodder for sheep and goats. Good bedding material.

Other: sometimes used for tannins and dyes.

Propagation

Containerised seedlings grown from seed. Seedlings planted after 4-5 months in low elevations. 10-11 months in higher elevations. Seedlings can be easily damaged by ants and frost. Fresh seed can be sown directly on bare mineral surface.

Seed treatment

No pretreatment needed. Seeds can be stored up to one year if dried well and placed in sealed containers. Seeds germinate 1-2 weeks after planting; then transplant into containers.

Management

In plantations, spacing of 2.5x2.5 m is common. Pollarded for pole and fuelwood production.

Agroforestry uses

Intercropped with cardamon, chilli peppers, barley, and pumpkin. Used in boundary plantings.

Albizia saman Raintree

Origin

Central and South America.

Ecology

Annual rainfall: 600-2500mm.

Normal temperature range: 20-35°C.

Altitude range: 0-1000m.

Seasonal adaptability: tolerates 2-4 months dry season.

Soils: acidic to alkaline, pH 5.5-8.5, clay or sands, can even withstand seasonally waterlogged soils.

Light requirement: high.

Description

Height at maturity: 40m.

Diameter at breast height (1.3m) at maturity: 2m.

Form: fair (plantations) to poor (in open pasture); large crown.

Coppicing ability: fair to excellent.

Growth: can attain a diameter at breast height of 18cm in 5 years.

Other: fixes nitrogen.

Primary advantages

Good quality timber for carving; ideal shade tree, with a high tolerance to a wide variety of sites.

Primary disadvantages

Top heavy and shallow rooted; spreading crown can occupy a wide area; foliage is sometimes atacked by defoliators.

Products and yields

Wood products: timber for carving and furniture is high quality, with production of 10-25m³/ha/yr under a 10-15 year rotation. Wood density is 0.6-0.7. Wood can be carved when green.

Fuelwood: 5200-5600 kcal/kg, high quality charcoal, but wood burns with a lot of smoke even when very dry.

Fodder: pods contain 12-18% protein, are 40% digestible, and are favoured by cows and goats. Leaves are also palatable.

Other: used to rear lac insect. Tannin, gum, and honey from prolific flowering. Pulpy pods are edible.

Propagation

By seed. Seedlings should be transplanted using containers.

Seed treatment

Place seeds in hot water for 3 minutes, then soak overnight in cool water.

Management

Can be pollarded, lopped heavily or coppiced to provide fuel.

Agroforestry uses

Used as a shade crop for coffee, vanilla, nutmeg, and cacao. Good shade tree in pasture systems and can be grown as a hedge tree if lopped heavily.

Safed Siris (Albizia procera) Albizia procera

Natural Habitat and Classification
The tree is commonly found on alluvial ground along streams, and in moist even swampy places. It is particularly common in low lying moist Savannahs.
The species is found in the sub-Himalayan tracts from Yamuna eastwards to West Bengal, Satpura range, Gujarat, South India and in the Andamans. It has good adaptability for growing in moist as well as fairly drought conditions. The tree is classed as a light demander although it stands moderate shade in the pole stage. It is fairly drought resistant but frost-tender. It produces root suckers when the stem is mutilated or the tree becomes old.
Albizia procera occurs in tropical semi-evergreen forests, tropical moist deciduous forests, dry tropical forests and northern sub-tropical broad-leaved forests. In the areas of its natural distribution, the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from about 36°C to 46°C, the absolute minimum from -1°C to 18°C and the normal annual rainfall from about 1,000-5,000 mm. Its common name is White Siris and trade name Safed Siris.
The tree belongs to family the Leguminosae, sub family Mimosoideae.

As a Plantation Tree
Being a fast growing species and having an immense potential for introduction in different types of soils and climatic conditions, it is planted in various states by the Forest Departments and also by farmers under Agro-forestry programmes. This is an important fast growing species in Assam and other eastern states, particularly Tripura. It is also planted in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Albizia procera has been used in experimental planting in saline and alkaline areas with considerable success. Being a legume, it fixes nitrogen through symbiotic bacteria present in root nodules and thus enhances and soil fertility.

Planting Site and its Preparation
The species prefers alluvial soils although it also comes up in clayey or moderately alkaline and saline soils, where it attains a smaller size. The planting site is cleared of undesirable growth by cutting and burning; 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm pits are dug before the summer season. The soil gets weathered during the hot months. It is also raised as a shade tree in tea gardens and planted in mine spoils. Since the species is vulnerable to browsing by cattle etc. the plantation areas have to be well protected generally by providing barbed wire fencing.

Planting
Entire plants as well as stumps are generally put in previously prepared planting pits with the break of the monsoon showers. Small as well as large 1 year to 15 months old saplings can be successfully planted depending upon the climatic conditions; success with smaller plants is however, achieved in moist areas

Spacing
In Assam and North Bengal, in case of line sowing, 2-3 m spacing between lines is adopted. The seedlings are spaced about 0.5 m in the lines at the end of the first growing season. Spacing of 2m x 2m or 3m x 3m are recommended for planting of entire transplants or stumps. Around the agricultural fields the species can be planted in a single row at 3m or 4 m spacing.

Mixed Plantations
In the tarai and bhabar tract of Uttar Pradesh, Safed Siris has been raised by sowing in admixture with other species like khair, sissoo, semal etc., in continuous ridges 4m apart. In areas subject to strong wind it is mixed with other wind firm species in plantations. In multi row strip plantations along roads, rail lines and canals, this species is planted in the middle row.

Manuring
Application of 5 ml rhizobium broth and 75 g single super phosphate per plant in the year of planting significantly increases the growth and development, and establishment of plantation.

Irrigation
In moist localities irrigation is not done. However, in drier and refractory sites, irrigation during summer months and winter, if there are no rains, is needed for ensuring the survival as well as better growth. As many waterings as possible should be done. Mulching has a very good effect in retention of moisture. In agroforestry plantations watering may not be required as the plants get sufficient moisture from the irrigation of agriculture crops. Where sufficient moisture is not available the plants die-back during the first and second year in summers, and resprout in the following rainy season.

Weeding
Three weedings are carried out in the first and second year in high rainfall areas, elsewhere two in the first and second year and one in third year, irrespective of whether the plantation is raised by direct sowing, entire transplants or stumps. Climbers and bushes likely to shade the plants are also cut. In the case of direct sowing, thinning of the plants is done to reduce competition.

Cleaning and Thinning
These operations are carried out depending upon the development of the crop and its silvicultural requirements

Harvesting
Trees are generally harvested from December to May. Collection of pods is done before they split on the tree otherwise the fallen seeds are quickly infested and damaged by pests. For fodder, the leaves are best collected from October to December when the availability of foliage is maximum.

Marketing
Timber and fuelwood are main marketable products which are sold in almost all the timber markets and fuelwood depots throughout India. The wood is also used for making paper pulp and chipboards in industries along with other species. Bark finds commercial use in the tanning industry

Adansonia digitata Baobab

Origin

Africa, south of the Sahara in semiarid to subhumid tropical areas.

Ecology

Annual rainfall: 100-1500 mm.

Normal temperature range: 16-36°C.

Altitude range: up to 1500m.

Seasonal adaptability: tolerates long dry season.

Soils: grows on a wide variety of soils but prefers deep moist calcareous soils. Tolerates seasonal flooding but not on heavy clay soils.

Light requirement: light demanding.

Description

Height at maturity: 20m.

Diameter at breast height (1.3m) at maturity: 200-600cm.

Form: poor, short bole, heavy branching and umbrella shaped crown.

Coppicing ability: poor.

Growth: 12m in height in 15 years.

Other: deciduous tree with smooth silvery grey bark. Branches curve downwards and resemble large roots when leafless. Flowers are pendulous and creamy white, onlong stalks, extending up to 1 m when the fruit develops. The species is dioecious: male and female flowers are produced on separate trees.

Primary advantages

Drought and fire resistant, and multiple uses.

Primary disadvantages

Not a timber or fuelwood tree.

Products and yields

Wood products: timber not normally used, but can be made into canoes, trays, fishing floats, utensils and can be chewed to provide drinking water.

Fodder: leaves are an important source in the early rainy season.

Other: leaves, flowers, seeds, fruit are edible for humans. Bark of young trees provides fibre and can regenerate. Trunks can be reservoirs of large quantities of water. Multiple medicinal uses from every part of the tree. Roots give a red dye, bark is a source of tannin and fruit pulp is an insect repellant when burnt.

Propagation

From seed sown in bags, pots, stake cuttings, direct sowing.

Seed treatment

Viable for several years if stored under normal conditions. Immerse in boiling water, remove immediately and cool. Digestion by animals also breals dormancy.

Management

Suitable for individual planting only. No major pests or diseases. Young trees can be damaged by fire or grazing.

Agroforestry uses

Homegardens or pastoral systems.

Acacia tortillis Umbrella thorn

Origin

Sahel, Middle East to Yemen.

Ecology

Annual rainfall: 50-1000mm.

Normal temperature range: 0-45°C.

Altitude range: up to 1000m.

Seasonal adaptability: dry season 6-9 months. moderately frost resistant after about 2 years old.

Soils: well drained eroded sites, sandy loams, lateritic gravel of neutral to alkaline pH. Also grows on shallow and saline soils.

Light requirement: light demanding.

Other site limitations: young plants are frost sensitive.

Description

Height at maturity: 4-20m.

Form: poor, multistemmed trees are common; crowns spreading.

Coppicing ability: good.

Growth: 1m in height and 1.3m in diameter per year.

Other: stem and branches dark brown, bark deeply furrowed and scaly. Has long, white paired thorns 2-10 cm long and also short paired prickles outside leaf axils. Pods 5mm wide, 8-12 cm long, curved and twisted or spirals. Flower clusters white, cream or pale yellow, globular, 1-4 at leafbase. Leaves bipinnate, 1.5-3.5 cm long.

Primary advantages

Drought resistant, multipurpose tree with relatively good growth for arid regions.

Primary disadvantages

Seeds can be attacked by insects. Susceptible to livestock grazing when young. Timber attacked by wood borers. The tree can become a weed.

Products and yields

Wood products: fuelwood, charcoal, poles, household utensils.

Fuelwood: 4400 kcal/kg, Can yield 54 tonnes/ha in 12 years planted at 3x3m.

Fodder: leaves (15-20% protein), pods (19% protein)/seeds are an important fodder source. Production about 900kg/ha/yr.

Other: bee forage, tannin from bark, medicinal use for leaves/bark, soil conservation, dune fixation, ornamental.

Propagation

Mainly from seed, also cropping, direct seeding, natural regeneration.

Seed treatment

Store at ambient temperature. Pretreatment: dip in hot water then soak overnight, or soak in concentrated sulphuric acid for 20-30 minutes. Digestion by animals also helps germination.

Management

Establishment requires weeding, wide spacing (10x10) on shallow soils and protection from grazing for 3-5 years. Coppicing, lopping and pollarding are used for harvesting. Rotationi is 10 years for fuelwood.

Agroforestry uses

Homegardens, pastoral systems, living fences, trees-on-farm.

Acacia senegal Gum arabic tree

Origin

Sahel, Africa.

Ecology

Annual rainfall: 100-800mm.

Normal temperature range: 14-43°C.

Altitude range: 100-1700m.

Seasonal adaptability: dry season of 8-11 months.

Soils: grows on sandy soils and also clay if no waterlogging. Optimum pH 5-8.

Light requirement: strong demander.

Description

Height at maturity: 2-13m.

Form: poor, short bole and spreading crown

Coppicing ability: good

Growth: 0.3m in height and 1.4cm in diameter per year.

Other: small, thorny, branchy tree with light grey to light brown scaly bark. Thorns black 3-7mm long, in triplets and claw like. Flower clusters cylindrical, 2-10 cm long, at leaf nodes. leaves bipinnate 2-6 cm long, shorter than flower clusters.

Primary advantages

Highly drought resistant, easy to propagate.

Primary disadvantages

Susceptible to grazing damage in early years. Can spread rapidly in fallow areas, becoming a weed.

Products and yields

Wood products: good quality fuelwood. Poles and agricultural tools. Timber yields are about 5m³/ha/yr from natural forest. Where gum is harvested wood yields drop to about 1m³ or less in plantations.

Fuelwood: 3200kcal/kg

Fodder: leaves and pods have high protien content. Seeds are also eaten by humans.

Other: the major source of gum arabic. Root fibres are used to make ropes and fish nets. Bee fodder. Suitable for erosion control and soil improvement, especially in desert conditions.

Propagation

Seed, either in plastic pots or by direct seeding.

Seed treatment

Pretreatment: soak in concentrated sulphuric acid for 20-30 minutes or soak in cold water for 48 hours.

Management

Needs protection from grazing, weeds and fire for 2 years.

Agroforestry uses

Intercropping, at wide spacing (10x10m), live fences and pastoral systems when established.

Acacia nilotica

Origin

Africa and South Asia

Ecology

Annual rainfall: 600-1200mm.

Normal temp range: 9-40°C.

Altitude range: 15-600m.

Seasonal adaptability: withstands drought extremely well.

Soils: prefers alkamine to neutral soils, deep soils, and alluvial loams; grows on heavier clay soils as well.

Light requirement: requires full sun.

Description

Height at maturity: 10-15m.

Diameter at breast height (1.3m) at maturity: 40-6-cm.

Form: spreading crown, heavy branching and crooked stem. Variety cupressiformis has a narrow crown and broom-like ascending branches.

Coppicing ability: fair; responds well to pollarding.

Growth: at 20 years, up to 12m in height, 20cm diameter.

Other: fixes nitrogen, thorny.

Primary advantages

Excellent fuelwood species and good shade tree; grows well on a range of sites from dry to moist; can withstand periodic heavy flooding and saline soils.

Primary disadvantages

Thorns prevent use of foliage for fodder; can become a weed if not managed, particularly under irrigated conditions; susceptible to leaf defoliators, beetles and damping off.

Products and yields

Wood products: small timber, fuelwood; up to 80m³/ha in 15 years.

Fuelwood: caloric value of 4800-4950 kcal/kg; planted in irrigated plantations to provide fuel to power locomotives, boilers and other industrial uses.

Fodder: leaves and pods are palatable; thorns are a problem. Pods contain up to 15% protein.

Other: tannin production, (bark and pods 12-20% tannin content); good quality honey; fair quality edible gum.

Propagation

Commonly direct seeded; young trees muxt be protected from browsing animals and need weeding.

Seed treatment

Fresh seeds can be planted directly. Older seeds need hot water treatment. Seeds may also be mixed with fresh cow dung and left in heaps for four to five days.

Management

Pollarding, lopping or pruning on a regular basis provides fodder to animals and keeps tree size desirable.

Agroforestry uses

Its open crown and pod production make this very good for livestock grazing systems.

Acacia mearnsis Black wattle

Origin

South and east Australia

Ecology

Annual rainfall: 400-1600mm.

Normal temp range: 2-26°C.

Altitude range: up to 2500m.

Seasonal adaptability: 2-3 months dry season and moderate frost resistance.

Soils: well-drained, moist, valley alluvial, forest podzols, sandy loams of acid to neutral pH and low to moderate fertility. Does not do well on calcareous soils.

Light requirement: light-demanding, shade tolerant when older.

Description

Height at maturity: 6-20m.

Diameter at breast height (1.3m) at maturity: 40cm.

Form: short bole with crooked stem and low branching when open growth, straighter in plantation.

Coppicing ability: poor.

Growth: on a good site 1m/year in height and 2.5cm/year in diameter for the first 10 years.

Other: a small to medium-sized evergreen tree with dark fissures bark in older trees. Flower scluster pale yellow and globular, 10-20 clusters per stem, in leaf axis or terminal. Leaves feathery bipinnate, 8-15cm long.

Primary advantages

Nitrogen fixing, fast growth, good fuelwood and tannin source. Suitable for soil protection on poor soils.

Primary disadvantages

Fire sensitive when young, invasive, not windfirm, not suitable for alkaline soils.

Products and yields

Wood products: fuelwood and charcoal, mine props, poles, low quality pulp. Production 10-25m³/ha/year. Wood density 0.55-0.85.

Fuelwood: 4690-7800 kcal/kg.

Other: bee forage, ornamental, tannin from bark (35-30% tannin).

Propagation

Seedlings, direct seeding, natural regeneration.

Seed treatment

Store dry, cold and airtight. Pretreatment: mechanical scarification, or immerse in boiling water then allow to cool.

Management

Pollarding on 8-10 year rotation. Coppicing is weak.

Agroforestry uses

Shelterbelts, erosion control on poor soils and steep slopes, homegardens, live fence, intercropping when young, pastoral systems, green manure, shade trees for tea.

Acacia mangium Mangium

Origin

Australia and Oceania, including Papua New Guinea.

Ecology

Annual rainfall: 1000-4000mm.

Normal temp range: 17.5-31°C

Altitude range: 0-720m.

Seasonal adaptability: poor drought tolerance.

Soils: pH from 4.5-8.0, grows well on red-yellow podsols, even if heavily eroded. Can tolerate some waterlogging.

Light requirement: strong, as it is a pioneer species.

Other site limitations: performs poorly with less than 1200 mm annual rainfall; does not tolerate strong wind.

Description

Height at maturity: 25-30m.

Diameter at breast height (1.3m) at maturity: 40-60cm.

Form: good, self pruning, straight bole without knots, especially when grown in plantation.

Coppicing ability: only in young stems, poor in old trees.

Growth: in a 13-year old plantation, can reach 23-25m height, 27-30cm diameter at breast height (1.3m).

Other: fixes nitrogen.

Primary advantages

Provides timber and other wood products; can quickly suppress imperata grass (Imperata cylindrica) on degraded acid soils.

Primary disadvantages

Some damage has been reported in young stands due to pinhole borers; some damage in nursery due to mildew and molds; wood has a high degree of 'spring' in milling test, a potential defect; heart rot can be a problem in older stands.

Products and yields

Wood products: timber, pulp, plywood, particle board. Yields range from 14m3/ha/yr at 4 years to 44m3/ha/yr at 10 years. Its timber has nice close grain.

Fuelwood: 4800-4900 kcal/kg, produces high quality charcoal.

Fodder: generally considered a poor fodder tree.

Other: shade and ornamental planting.

Propagation

By seed.

Seed treatment

Pour boiling water over seed, 1 part seed to 10 parts water. After 30 seconds to 1 minute remove seeds and place in cold water, then soak overnight, remove, and dry.

Management

Commonly planted at 3x3m spacing. For timber, prune every 6 months, up to the age of 2 years, and thin stands at ages 2, 6 and 10 years. To avoid heart rot, harvest at 5-7 years.

Agroforestry uses

Use in taungya systems. Closes canopy quickly, however, and must be planted at wide spacing (greater then 3x3m) to allow more than one year of annual inter crop.

Acacia catechu Cutch tree

Origin

From the southern Himalayas to Andhra Pradesh in India and eastwards to Thailand.

Ecology

Annual rainfall: 500–2000mm.

Normal temp range: -1–39°C.

Altitude range: Up to 1500m.

Seasonal adaptability: Dry season up to 3–4 months.

Soils: Sandy, gravelly alluvium, loamy and sandy clay soils. Can grow on poor shallow calcareous soils. Does poorly on clay or poorly drained soils.

Light requirement: Strong light demander.

Other site limitations: Seedlings are intolerant of frost.

Description

Height at maturity: 20m.

Diameter at breast height (1.3m) at maturity: up to 60cm.

Form: Poor, short stem and spreading crown.

Coppicing ability: Good in full light at young age.

Growth: On a good site about 1m in height and 1cm in diameter per year for the first 10 years, then slows considerably.

Other: A small or medium-sized deciduaos thorny tree, with peeling dark grey bark. Flower clusters white to pale yellow, 5–10cm long, in leaf axils. Leaves bipinnate 15–20 cm long at the base of each leaf.

Primary advantages

Ready market for products in certain areas.

Primary disadvantages

Slow growth, poor stem quality.

Products and yields

Wood products: Main products are cutch, used for tanning and dyeing, and katha, which is chewed with betel nut. These are extracted from the heartwood by boiling. The strong durable timber is used for house posts, tools, wheels etc, fuelwood and charcoal, hardwood. Yield 1–5m³/ha/year. Yield of heartwood 50–75m³ at 60 years, yielding 4–6 tonnes of cutch. Wood density 0.8–1.2.

Fuelwood: 6127kcal/kg.

Fodder: Leaves (13–19% protein).

Other: Medicinal use for the bark to treat diarrhea, dysentry and wounds, the seeds for antibacterial action. The tree is also a host for lac cultivation.

Propagation

From seed or cuttings. Seedlings are grown in a nursery, transferred to bags and planted out when 30–50cm tall. Direct seeding possible in moist areas.

Seed treatment

Collect pods as soon as ripe and extract seeds when dry. Viability 6–8 months. Pretreatment: immerse in boiling water, allow to cool for 24 hours, or soak in concentrated sulphuric acid for 20–30 minutes.

Management

Young trees require weeding and protectioni from fire and grazing. Plant 3–6 months old seedlings at 2x4 or 4x6m spacing. Trees with girth of 60–120 cm are suitable for harvesting.

Agroforestry uses

Intercropping, field margins, trees on farms.

Acacia auriculiformis

Origin

Australia and Oceania, including Papua New Guinea

Ecology

Annual rainfall: 1000–3000mm.

Normal temperature range: 22–32°C

Altitude range: 0–700m

Seasonal adaptability: 4–6 months dry season

Soils: Can grow on soils ranging from highly acid to alkaline; from shallow clay soils to deep sandy loams.

Light requirement: Strong

Other site limitations: Low wind tolerance

Description

Height at maturity: 15–25m.

Diameter at breast height (1.3m) at maturity: 50–60cm.

Form: Poor; crooked stem, heavy branching.

Coppicing ability: Poor–fair

Growth: 15–18m in height, 15–20cm in diameter in 10–12cm in diameter in 1-–12 year rotation.

Other: Fixes nitrogen,produces high levels of nitrogen even on poor soils.

Primary advantages

Good pulp production on highly infertile sites with pH as low as 3.0 oron soils as shallow as 20cm also can shade out imperata grass (Imperata cylindrica)

Primary disadvantages

Has strong allelopathic effects that limit tree-crop interactions.

Products and yields

Wood products: Poles, pulp, timber; 12–15 m³/ha/year on 10-12 year rotation, higher or lower yields depending on rainfall and soil type.

Fuelwood: 4600-4800 kcal/kg, yields of 16 tons/ha/year; branches and leaves are a good source of small diameter fuelwood, yielding 4-6 tons/ha/year.

Fodder: Unpalatable for livestock after first year.

Other: Shade tree, tannin and gums.

Propagation

Planting seedlings is the best method but it is possible to sow seed directly.

Seed treatment

Some scarification of the seed is needed, hot water scarification is best.

Management

Pruning, coppicing, pollarding. For fuelwood and pulp, usually planted at 2x2m up to 4x4m. For better coppicing, cut stumps at 1m above ground. Removing lower branches of young plants may improvestem form.

Agroforestry uses

Limited by the allelopathic effects of prolific leaf liltter. Some uses include hedgerows on steep denuded lands. Uses as firebreak species in orchards, shades out imperata grass, thus reducing fire danger. Not recommended for growing close to food crops